Sinagoga del Transito, Toledo, interior view. Built in 1356 by Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia, Treasurer to Peter of Castile, the synagogue boasts exquisite stucco decoration, comparable to that of the Alcazars of Seville or the Alhambra palaces in Granada. After the expulsion of the Jews from Toledo in 1492, the synagogue was converted into a church run by the Order of Calatrava. The building was used as a military headquarters during the Napoleonic Wars and was eventually turned into the Sephardi Museum. Dramatically sited atop a hill overlooking the Tajo (Tagus) River, Toledo was known as the ‘city of three cultures’ in the Middle Ages, a place where art and architecture was influenced by the three world religions, Christianity, Islam and Judaism, creating a unique fusion. Horseshoe-arched mosques, Sephardic synagogues and one of Spain’s finest Gothic cathedrals cram into its dense historical core. The roots of the city date back two thousand years, to the Roman times. Known as a settlement since 193 BC, Toletum was incorporated into the Roman Empire with full citizenship rights for its population in the 1st century AD. It was a typical Roman city, complete with a Roman circus for chariot races, public baths, and a municipal water supply system, encircled by defensive walls. The city gradually gained importance and was a stronghold for Visigothic kings. King Athanagild and his wife, Queen Goiswintha, had their court in Toledo. Their daughter Brunhilda was born here and would later rule the eastern Frankish kngdoms of Austrasia and Burgundia as queen consort. It was not, however, until the end of the 6th century, when Toledo emerged as the center of political power for the Visigoths after King Leovigild brought the whole of the Iberian Peninsula under control. The Visigoths ruled Hispania from Toledo until the very end of their kingdom in the 8th century when they were driven out by the Moors. Exposed by inner tensions within the Visigothic elite, the capital was conquered with little difficulty. Under the Arab control, Toledo lost its capital status and was ruled first from Seville, then from Cordoba by the Governor of Al-Andalus. Over time, however, Toledo grew to be the most important city of central Muslim Spain and, after the collapse of the caliphate in Cordoba in 1031, became the capital of an independent Arab taifa. For the following 50 years the city was unrivalled as a center of learning and arts in Spain and, for a brief period, its power ranged across all modern Castilla-La Mancha extending to Valencia and even to Cordoba. In 1085, Toledo was reconquered by the Christian forces. Three years later, Toledo archbishop became Primate of Spain, thus reinforcing the city as the religious capital of the country. By the mid-16th century Toledo was all but established capital of Spain. King Carlos I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) stayed permanently in Toledo. On his order, the old Alcazar was rebuilt to make a fortress more like a royal palace. It was there where the king received Hernan Cortes with his report of the conquest of the Aztecs. His successor, King Felipe II, however, made a definitive move away to Madrid, the new capital. Toledo’s cultural heritage and rich collection of historical monuments have secured its place as a UNESCO World Heritage Site [May 17, 2018].
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Casa Consistorial de Sevilla, now the seat of the city’s government (ayuntamiento). The edifice was started in the 15th century in Plateresque style. The façade overlooking Plaza de San Francisco is lavishly decorated with reliefs. These vibrant sculptural carvings include Florentine grotesques, heraldic shields, emblems alluding to justice, harmony and good government, and representations of characters linked to the city, such as Hercules, Julius Caesar (who created the first town hall), and the Emperor Charles V (who made Seville one of the capitals of his empire). An Iberian town from ancient times, Seville is associated with the Tartessian culture which had existed before the area was colonized by the Phoenicians. Since then, the city has been exposed to the influence of numerous civilizations that have come and gone, all being instrumental in the growth of the city and forging its distinct personality. Following the Roman rule, the Germanic Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths succeeded each other in quick succession in the 5th and the 6th centuries. In 712, the Moorish era began. Seville flourished as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate. Parts of the Alcázar Palace and the Giralda tower date back to those times. Torre del Oro, once an outward fortification of the Alcázar, remains a striking feature along the Guadalquivir. More than five centuries later, in 1248, Seville was conquered by Castile. The development of the city continued, with the Cathedral still standing as the most prominent building of the late Medieval period. During the stay of the Catholic Kings, Ferdinand II of Aragon and his wife, Isabella I of Castile, in Seville, in 1477, the Spanish Inquisition was given green light, with the first auto-da-fe taking place three years later. The Spanish discovery of the Americas brought new prosperity to the city as the trade with new colonies was monopolized by the city. By the end of the 16th century, Seville was the richest city in Spain, with some 150,000 inhabitants by 1588. In the 17th century, the economy of the city declined as the trade moved to other cities, like Cádiz, where the port was easier to access. This however, had no adverse effect on arts and culture and many great names like the painters Diego Velázquez, Francisco de Zurbarán, and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, the sculptor Juan Martínez Montañés, and the poet Fernando de Herrera are the glories of Seville and of Spain. Miguel de Cervantes conceived his novel Don Quixote while he was confined in Seville’s jail. The Iberoamerican Exposition of 1929 initiated a new renaissance in Seville. During the 20th century the port was enlarged, and the city received a new impetus to be revived as an industrial and commercial center [May 19, 2018].
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The Atlantic Ocean at Luanco, Asturias, Spain [May 7, 2015].
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Avenida Duque de Najera in Cádiz, Andalusia, Spain. Founded by Phoenicians from Tyre as early as 1104 BC, Cádiz is one of the most ancient cities in Europe still standing. From the very beginning, Cádiz was an important sea port, a base for merchant and military fleet. Many outstanding navigators embarked from here on their exploration missions, from Cathaginians Himlico and Hanno to Christopher Columbus. Hamilcar Barca took control over the city in the First Punic War and it was Hannibal’s starting point in his famous journey to cross the Alps and invade Italy in 218 BC. Twelve years later the city fell to Romans and became the principal city of their colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. The city was completely destroyed when the Visigoths drove the Romans out in 410 AD, only to be ousted by the Moors three centuries later. The Arab rule over Cádiz lasted until 1262 when they were defeated by Alphonso X of Castile. As a port, Cádiz has always been exposed as a target for the enemies of Spain. The city was raided by pirates in the Francis Drake mold and attacked by British fleet on numerous occasions. In the 18th century, Cádiz thrived as the American trade was transferred here from Seville. During the Napoleonic wars, Cádiz was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the Invading French. The National Assembly (Cortes) proclaimed the new, liberal Constitution of Spain in Cádiz in 1812 abolishing old kingdoms. In 1868, Queen Isabella II, wife of Duke of Cádiz, was in exile here and abdicated from power. Two years later the Cádiz Cortes reinstated monarchy in Spain under King Amadeo. Nowadays, Cádiz remains an important sea port and at the same time it is a tourist destination boasting a well-preserved old town with narrow streets and beautiful plazas [May 24, 2017].
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A view of the City of Arts and Sciences (Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias), Valencia, Spain. The City of Arts and Sciences is an ensemble of six areas in the dry river bed of the now diverted River Turia. Designed mostly by Valencian architect Santiago Calatrava and started in July 1996, it is an impressive example of modern architecture. The City is made up of El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía (Opera house and performing arts centre); L'Hemisfèric (Imax Cinema, Planetarium and Laserium); L'Umbracle (Walkway / Garden); El Museu de les Ciències Príncipe Felipe (Science museum); Oceanografic (Open-air aquarium or oceanographic park); Ágora (a versatile space that allow the holding of varied events). El Pont de l’Assut de l’Or, a 125-meter cable-stayed bridge, is the highest point of the city. The history of Valencia dates back to the Roman times, when a colony named Valentia was founded in 138 BC. Strategically located on a river island near the sea, the town enjoyed rapid growth as more colonists kept arriving. After the demise of the empire, the Visigoths took over only to give way to the advancing Moors in 714 AD. Valencia was absorbed into Muslim Al-Andalus but was later turned into a small state, Taifa of Valencia. The Muslim rule lasted for about five centuries, interrupted in 1094 when El Cid Campeador besieged and then captured the city making it his own principality. It was in Valencia when he was killed five years later, with his wife Ximena Diaz ruling in his place for two more years. It was not until 1238 when Valencia was reconquered by James I of Aragon who drove the Moors for good adding the newly-formed Kingdom of Valencia to the Crown of Aragon. By the 15th century, Valencia became the biggest city in Aragon, its industry, arts and culture flourished. All this changed after the discovery of Americas, as Valencia was denied participation in the cross-Atlantic trade. A long decline set in, which ended in the Kingdom of Valencia losing its independence after the War of Spanish Succession. Having sided with the losing party, Charles of Austria, Valencia was punished by the victorious Bourbons who burned important cities around Valencia, repealed all the legal privileges and introduced the Castile laws and customs, with top civil officials appointed directly from Madrid. In 1812, Valencia was captured by the French troops and for a short while housed the court of Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s elder brother and a pretender to the throne. After the French were driven out, Valencia gradually developed into a heavily industrialized city and a major sea port [May 20, 2019].
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